40s BC
40s BC: events by year
Contents: 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC 41 BC 40 BC
By place
Roman Republic
By place
Roman Republic
- Consuls: Gaius Julius Caesar, Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus.
- Civil War:
- January 4 – Caesar lands at Dyrrhachium (Durazzo).
- March – Mark Antony joins Caesar.
- April – Siege of Dyrrhachium, Caesar builds a fortified line of entrenchments and besiege Pompey.
- May – Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus, co-consul with Julius Caesar, destroys Caelius's magistrate's chair on his tribunal.
- July 10 – Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia; he retreats to Thessaly.
- August 9 – Battle of Pharsalus: Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt. Pompey's army by and large pardoned.
- September 28 – Pompey the Great is assassinated on orders of King Ptolemy of Egypt after landing in Egypt (may have occurred September 29, records unclear).
- October – Julius Caesar reached Alexandria, city founded by Alexander the Great. He is met by an Egyptian delegation from Ptolemy XIII. The Egyptians offered him gifts: the ring of Pompey and his head.
- Caesar is named consul for a period of five years.
- Roman temple to Bellona on the Capitolinus outside Rome is burnt to the ground.
- Siege of Alexandria: Queen Cleopatra VII returns to the palace rolled into a Persian carpet and has it presented to Caesar by her servant. The Egyptian princess, only twenty-one years old, becomes his mistress.
- Pharnaces, King of Bosporus defeats the Caesarian Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus in the Battle of Nicopolis (or Nikopol).
- December – Battle in Alexandria, Egypt between the forces of Caesar and his ally Cleopatra VII and those of rival King Ptolemy XIII of Egypt and Queen Arsinoe IV. The latter two are defeated and flee the city, but during the battle part of the Library of Alexandria catches fire and is burned down.
Asia
By place
Roman Republic
Asia
By place
Roman Republic
- Consuls: Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.
- Civil War:
- January 4 – Titus Labienus bloodily defeats Julius Caesar in the Battle of Ruspina.
- April 6 – Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio and Juba at Thapsus. After the battle Caesar grant Legio V Alaudae the right to bear the elephant symbol on its shields and standards, for bravery against a charge of elephants.
- April 20 – Cicero, in Rome, writes to Varro "If our voices are no longer heard in the Senate and in the Forum, let us follow the example of the ancient sages and serve our country through our writings, concentrating on questions of ethics and constitutional law."
- Caesar's erstwhile mistress, Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, and his bastard son by her, Caesarion, taken up residence in one of the dictator's estates on the Tiber.
- September 26 – Julius Caesar dedicates a temple to his mythical ancestor Venus Genetrix in fulfillment of a vow he made at the battle of Pharsalus.
- November – Caesar leaves for Farther Hispania to deal with a fresh outbreak of resistance.
- Caesar reforms the Roman calendar to create the Julian calendar. The transitional year is extended to 445 days to synchronize the new calendar and the seasonal cycle. The Julian Calendar would remain the standard in the western world for over 1600 years, until superseded by the Gregorian Calendar in 1582.
- Caesar appoints his nephew Octavian his heir.
- Caesar subdues a mutiny of his Tenth Legion.
- Caesar celebrates his Gallic Triumph, after which Vercingetorix is executed. In Rome, last the celebrations for forty days, included public banquets, plays and gladiatorial games.
- Vitruvius described Etruscan and Roman architecture.
By place
Roman Republic
Asia
By place
Roman Republic
- Consuls: Gaius Julius Caesar, Mark Antony.
- February – Rome celebrates the festival of the Lupercal. Mark Antony presents Caesar with a royal diadem, urging him to take it and declare himself king. He refuses this offer and orders the crown to be placed in the Temple of Jupiter.
- March 14 – Mark Antony is alarmed when Cicero tells him the gods would strike Caesar. Casca, Cicero and Cassius decide, in the night before the Assassination of Julius Caesar, that Mark Antony should stay alive.
- March 15 (the Ides of March) – Julius Caesar, dictator of Rome, is assassinated by a group of Roman senators, amongst them Gaius Cassius Longinus, Marcus Junius Brutus, and Caesar's Massilian naval commander, Decimus Brutus. Caesar's famous last quote – coined by William Shakespeare in his play Julius Caesar – was most likely not spoken (see: "Et tu, Brute?").
- March 20 – Caesar's funeral is held. Marcus Antony gives a eulogy and in his Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears speech he makes accusations of murder and ensures a permanent breach with the conspirators against Caesar. He snatches Caesar's purple toga to show the crowd the stab wounds, the citizens tear apart the forum and cremate their Caesar on a makeshift pyre. Antony becomes the first man in Rome.
- April – Octavian returns from Apollonia in Dalmatia to Rome to take up Caesar's inheritance, against advice from Atia (his mother and Caesar's niece) and consular stepfather Antony.
- April 18–April 21 – Octavian engages in charm offensive with consular Cicero who is fulminating against Mark Antony.
- June – Antony is granted a five-year governorship of northern and central Transalpine Gaul (France) and Cisalpine Gaul (Northern Italy).
- September 2
- December – Antony besieges Brutus Albinus in Mutina (Modena), with Octavian, an ally of Decimus, who is one of his uncle's assassins, close by.
- A Denarius with a portrait of Julius Caesar is made. It is now kept at the American Numismatic Society in New York.
Europe
By place
Roman Republic
- Consuls: Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Aulus Hirtius. The Roman Senate confirms Octavian as propraetor with joint responsibility for the campaign against Antony. Hirtius and Octavian mobilize troops for the march to Mutina, while Pansa continues the levy. Embassy dispatched to treat with Antony.
- Gaius Antonius is defeated by Marcus Junius Brutus at Dyrrachium, Brutus proceeds to secure his position in Thrace and Macedonia. Gaius Cassius Longinus campaigns in Syria and defeats the army of Publius Cornelius Dolabella at Laodicea.
- March – Vibius Pansa set out to link up with Hirtius and Octavian, bringing four legions of recruits, having left one, the legio urbana, to defend Rome.
- April 14 – Battle of Forum Gallorum: Mark Antony, besieging Caesar's assassin Decimus Brutus in Mutina, defeats the forces of the consul Pansa, but is then immediately defeated by the army of the other consul, Hirtius. Both consuls are killed (Hirtius did not die until after the Battle of Mutina).
- April 21
- Antony marched to Parma (which is sacked) and Placentia. He then crossed the Ligurian Alps to Vada Sabatia, 50 km south-west of Genoa. Antony joints with Aemilius Lepidus, soon after Decimus Brutus is killed by brigands.
- The Senate declares Antony a hostis, an enemy of the state. Sextus Pompey becomes supreme commander of the Roman navy and Gaius Cassius proconsul of Syria.
- July–August – Antony is again at the head of a large army, Octavian enters Rome in force without opposition. It is clear that Cicero’s plan to divide them against each other has failed.
- September – Gaius Octavian taking office as consul, the day before his 20th birthday, he prevailed to pass the lex Pedia, a law establishing the murder of Caesar as a capital crime.
- November 26 – Octavian meets Antony and Lepidus in Bononia, and the three enter into an official five-year autocratic pact, the Second Triumvirate. (See lex Titia)
- To cement their reconciliation Octavian agreed to marry Clodia, a daughter of Antony's wife Fulvia by her former husband Publius Clodius Pulcher.
- November – The triumvirs introduced proscriptions in which allegedly 130 senators and 2,000 equites were branded as outlaws and deprived of their property.
- December 7 – Marcus Tullius Cicero is killed in Formiae in a litter going to the seaside, by a party led by a military tribune, Popilius Laenas. His head and hands are displayed on the Rostra in the Forum Romanum.
Gaul
Asia
By place
Roman Republic
- January – Publius Vatinius, governor of Illyricum, seized Dyrrachium and is forced to surrender his army (three legions) to Marcus Junius Brutus.
- Marcus Brutus begins to plunder the cities of Asia Minor, in order to obtain money and soldiers. The inhabitants of Lycia refused to submit to Rome, and Brutus besieged Xanthus. After destroying their suburbs, the Xanthians withdrew into the heavily fortified city. The Roman legionaries (2,000 men) forced the gate and fight their way into the forum. The citizens made an heroic stand by the temple of Sarpedon, as night falls the Roman army conquers the city. The Xanthians preferred to perish in the flames rather than to yield.
- The confederation of Lycia sent ambassadors to Brutus, promising to form a military league and contribute money for building ships. Gaius Cassius Longinus occupies Rhodes, and ordered all the other cities of Asia to pay a tribute for 10 years.
- July – Mark Antony lands with an army (28 legions) in Illyria, left Octavian ill at Dyrrachium and marched to Amphipolis. Admiral Ahenobarbus blokkades with the Republican fleet (130 ships) the Adriatic Sea.
- August – Decidius Saxa and Gaius Norbanus Flaccus are appointed by Antony, to lead an advanced force of eight legions to Macedonia along the Via Egnatia into Thrace.
- September – Brutus and Cassius crossed the Hellespont, they marched to Doriscus but further progress is blocked by Saxa's occupation of the Corpili Pass.
- Saxa retreats to link up with Norbanus at the Sapaei Pass. The Republicans outflank the enemy by forging an alternate route through the mountains in the north.
- Brutus and Cassius advance to Philippi and built fortifications. Antony links up with Norbanus and Saxa at Amphipolis, Octavian arrives on a litter 10 days later.
- October 3 – First Battle of Philippi: The Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian Caesar fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's assassins Marcus Brutus and Cassius. The Roman forces including 2,000 Spartans who just arrived are routed, Octavian takes refuge in the marsh. Cassius' camp is captured by Antony's men, wrongly fearing that Brutus is dead Cassius commits suicide. He ordered his freedman Pindarus to kill him, Brutus feared the impact on morale and secretly buried his beheaded body on Thasos. The Republican navy in the Adriatic, intercept and destroy the supply ships with two legions of the Triumvirs.
- October 23 – Second Battle of Philippi: Brutus' army is defeated by Antony and Octavian, the Triumvirs smash through the weakened Republican centre and take Brutus's right wing in its flank. After the battle 14.000 legionaries lay down their arms. Brutus fled to the heights of Philippi, where he commits suicide the following day. After the victory, Brutus' body is brought to Antonius' camp, where he cast his purple paludamentum over his dead body and orders an honourable funeral for his erstwhile comrade. The Republican cause crushed, Rome rested in the hands of the Second Triumvirate.
- Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian returns to Rome and arranged for ± 40.000 veterans settlements in Campania, Etruria, Picenum, Samnium, Umbria and in northern Italy.
By place
Roman Republic
Egypt
By place
Roman Republic
- Consuls: Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus and Gaius Asinius Pollio.
- Siege of Perusia: After a last attempt to break the siege, which failed; Lucius Antonius surrenders to Octavian. His life is spared, but the citizens are executed or sold in slavery. Fulvia fled with her children and is exiled to Sicyon, where she died of a sudden illness.
- Spring – Salvidienus Rufus marches to Transalpine Gaul to take command of the eleven legions, after the death of Quintus Fufius Calenus. Octavian divorced Clodia Pulchra and marries Scribonia, a sister of Lucius Scribonius Libo and a follower of Sextus.
- Sextus Pompey dispatched Menas with four legions and captured Sardinia, driving out Octavian's governor Marcus Lurius. He seized the capital, Caralis and occupied Corsica. Sextus besieged Cosenza in Bruttium and Thurii in Lucania, ravaging the territory with his cavalry.
- Sextus' fleet raides the ports of Puteoli and Ostia. The populace hold the Triumvirs responsible for prolonging the war, they provoked a riot on the Forum. Octavian with the Praetorian Guard went to intercept, he escaped with his life because Antony summoned troops to rescue his junior colleague.
- Treaty of Brundisium: The Triumvirs agreed to divide the Roman Republic into spheres of influence. Gaius Octavian styled himself "Imperator Caesar" and takes control of the Western provinces. Mark Antony is given the Eastern provinces; the River Drin, the boundary between the provinces Illyricum and Macedonia, would serve as their frontier. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus controls Hispania and Africa. The treaty is cemented by the marriage of Antony and Octavia, sister of Octavian.
Asia
Egypt
Greece
Parthia
China
Significant people
- Julius Caesar, Roman dictator (lived 100–44 BC, term 46–44 BC)
- Marcus Junius Brutus, Roman politician (85–42 BC)
- Mark Antony, Roman politician and general (83–30 BC)
- Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt (lived 70/69–30 BC, reigned 51–30 BC)—enters her twenties, has son Caesarion with Julius Caesar, before meeting Mark Antony
- Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus, Roman politician and general (62 BC–14 AD)
- Pharaoh Ptolemy XV Caesarion (lived 47–30 BC, reigned 44–30 BC)
- Gaius Cassius Longinus, Roman politician (died 42 BC)
Births
Deaths
References